Risks to Inclusion

RI1. Discrimination

Discrimination in any of its forms (e.g. racial, socioeconomic, gender, disability, age, linguistic, geographic, cultural) reduces access to opportunities, economic empowerment, essential services like health and education, and participation in public and economic life. It is particularly important to avoid discrimination in those digital ID systems that provide social and emergency services, government services, and enable the broader economy. Discrimination is a leading cause of statelessness globally, with affected persons often excluded from identification and other systems. The digitalization of ID and other systems risks perpetuating existing disenfranchisement.

RI2. Unequal access

Unequal access to DPI is not only caused by discrimination but is also due to the digital divide and other sources of shortfall in technology (electricity, Internet connectivity, smartphones, and computers), as well as socioeconomic barriers (poverty, general education, digital literacy), infrastructure and service gaps in geographic areas, language barriers and disability. Human rights harms arise when access to critical public information and services is not possible due to unequal access to DPI and the social and economic structures they rely on.

RI3. Exclusion

Exclusion also occurs when enrolment in DPI systems is onerous, impossible or causes unease, particularly when it is a mandatory requirement to access public information or services. This often imposes a hidden cost on vulnerable individuals who may need to rely on others for assistance. In developing countries, where resources for support may be limited, the lack of alternative methods for accessing services is a prevalent risk. Courts may need to intervene to protect the rights of excluded individuals. Exclusion can lead to market power concentration, resulting in higher service costs, reduced choice and lower service quality.

RI4. Disempowerment

Disempowerment may be caused by DPI systems which restrict individuals’ control over their personal data, threatening autonomy and human agency. The threat is exacerbated when people have little understanding of the possible use and reuse of the data, the associated impact, and how, or if, they can exercise control over it. Mandatory data provision can also erode human agency and, in some jurisdictions, violate human rights and civil liberties, potentially being unconstitutional.